Texas

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State of Texas
Flag of Texas Seal of Texas Nickname(s): The Lone Star State Motto(s): Friendship before statehood, known as the Republic of Texas
Official language(s)	No official language (see Languages spoken in Texas)
Demonym	Texan
Capital	Austin
Largest city	Houston
Largest metro area	Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington[1]
Area	Ranked 2nd in the US
- Total	268,820[2] sq mi (696,241 km²)
- Width	773[3] miles (1,244 km)
- Length	790 miles (1,270 km)
- % water	2.5
- Latitude	25° 50′ N to 36° 30′ N
- Longitude	93° 31′ W to 106° 39′ W
Population	Ranked 2nd in the US
- Total	24,326,974 (2008 est.)[4][5]
- Density	79.6[6]/sq mi  (30.75/km²) Ranked 26th in the US
Elevation
- Highest point	Guadalupe Peak[7] 8,749 ft  (2,667 m)
- Mean	1,700 ft  (520 m)
- Lowest point	Gulf of Mexico coast[7] 0 ft  (0 m)
Admission to Union	December 29, 1845 (28th)
Governor	Rick Perry (R)
Lieutenant Governor	David Dewhurst (R)
U.S. Senators	Kay Bailey Hutchison (R) John Cornyn (R)
Congressional Delegation	List
Time zones
- most of state	Central: UTC-6/-5
- tip of West Texas	Mountain: UTC-7/-6
Abbreviations	TX Tex. US-TX
Website	www.texasonline.com/

Texas ( /ˈtɛksəs/ (help·info)) is a state located in the South Central United States nicknamed the Lone Star State. Austin is the capital. Texas—the second largest U.S. state in both area and population—spans 268,820 square miles (696,200 km²) and has a growing population of 24.3 million^[8]. Houston is its largest city and fourth-largest in the United States, while the Dallas–Fort Worth metropolitan area also called the Metroplex is the largest metropolitan area in the state and the fourth-largest in the nation.

Texas contains diverse landscapes, resembling, in places, both the Deep South and the desert Southwest. Traveling from east to west, one could observe piney woods and semi-forests of oak and cross timbers, rolling plains and prairie, and finally the desert of the Big Bend. The phrase "everything is bigger in Texas" derives in part from the state's geographic sprawl and the wide open spaces of its desert and prairie regions.^[9] Due to its long history as a center of the American cattle industry, Texas is associated throughout much of the world with the image of the cowboy. Historically and culturally, Texas is usually considered part of the American South. However, with its Spanish and Mexican roots, it can also be classified as part of the American Southwest. While residents acknowledge these categories, many claim an independent "Texan" identity superseding regional labels.

The term "six flags over Texas" comes from the multiple countries that have claimed the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas. France held a short lived colony in Texas. Mexico owned the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence becoming an independent Republic. In 1845 it joined the United States as the 28th state. The state's annexation helped set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846 and the U.S. Civil War. Texas would also join the Confederate States of America as a charter member on March 1, 1861.

In the early 1900s, oil discoveries initiated an economic boom in the state. Texas has since economically diversified. It has a growing base in high technology, biomedical research and higher education. Its gross state product is the second-highest in the nation.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Colonization 2.2 Republic 2.3 Statehood 2.4 Civil War and Reconstruction 2.5 Modern era 3 Geography 3.1 Geology 4 Climate 5 Demographics 5.1 Racial group and ethnic origins 5.2 Religion 5.3 Cities and towns 6 Government and politics 6.1 State government 6.2 Politics 6.3 Administrative divisions 7 Economy 7.1 Agriculture and mining 7.2 Energy 7.3 Technology 7.4 Commerce 8 Transportation 8.1 Highways 8.2 Airports 8.3 Ports 8.4 Railroads 9 Culture 9.1 Arts 9.2 Sports 10 Healthcare 10.1 Medical research 11 Education 11.1 Colleges and universities 12 See also 13 Footnotes 14 References 15 External links

Etymology

The state's name derives from táysha, a word in the Caddoan language of the Hasinai, which means "allies" or "friends".^[2][10][11] The word "Texas" has many different manifestations in American English vernacular. Due to the state's large geographic size, the expression "Texas-sized" means "big".^[12][13] Many Texas-related words, including the term Tex-Mex, also use the prefix, "Tex".

History

Main article: History of Texas

Colonization

Main articles: French Texas, Spanish Texas, and Mexican Texas

Alonso Álvarez de Pineda made the first documented European sighting of Texas in 1519.^[14][15] On November 6, 1528, shipwrecked Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca became the first known European in Texas.^[16][17] In 1685 René Robert Cavelier de La Salle established the first European community in Texas, the French colony of Fort Saint Louis.^[18] The colony, located along Matagorda Bay, lasted only four years before succumbing to harsh conditions and hostile natives.^[19]

Due to the perceived French encroachment, Spain established its first presence in Texas in 1691 constructing of missions in East Texas.^[20] The missions failed quickly, and Spain did not resettle Texas until two decades had passed.^[21] Spain returned to East Texas in 1716, establishing missions and a presidio to maintain a buffer between New Spain and the territory of Louisiana.^[22][23] Two years later, Spain established the first European civilian settlement in Texas, San Antonio.^[24]

Hostile native tribes and remoteness from New Spain discouraged settlers from moving to Texas and it remained one of New Spain's least populated provinces.^[25] The Lipan Apache often targeted San Antonio for raids.^[26] In 1749, the Spanish signed a peace treaty with the Apache,^[27] which resulted in raids by the enemies of the Apache, the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai tribes.^[28] The Comanche signed a treaty with Spain in 1785^[29] and later assisted in defeating the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes.^[30][31] An increased number of missions in the province allowed for a peaceful conversion of other tribes, and by the end of the 1700s only a few nomadic tribes were not "Christianized".^[32]

The Louisiana Purchase by the United States caused a border dispute over Texas.^[33][34] The signing of the Adams-Onís Treaty, recognizing the Sabine River as Texas's eastern boundary, resolved the dispute in 1819.^[35]

In 1821, after the Mexican War of Independence, the territory became a part of the new country.^[36] Texas became the northern section of Coahuila y Tejas in 1824. Mexico ended the Spanish policy of allowing only full-blooded Spaniards to settle Texas. On January 3, 1823, after obtaining authorization by Governor Antonio María Martínez, the Texas's first empresario, Stephen F. Austin, began a colony of 297 Anglo-American families known as the "Old Three Hundred" along the Brazos River.^[37] While many nationalities were encouraged to settle in Texas under the empresario system, most settlers came from the United States.^[38] By 1836, 20,000 Anglo settlers along and 5,000 African American's, mostly slaves, were settled in Texas.^[38] The rapid growth in settlers along with a several United States attempts to buy Texas,^[39] raised Mexican suspisions of the United States attempting to take over the territory.^[38] Mexico outlawed immigration from the United States in the 1930s, bringing Texas one step closer to its revolution.^[39]

Republic

Main articles: Texas Revolution and Republic of Texas

The Convention of 1832 and the Convention of 1833 were responses to rising unrest at policies of the Mexican government. In addition to dissatisfaction with new immigration from the united states Delegates feared the end of duty-free imports and the threat of ending slavery.^[40] In 1835, Antonio López de Santa Anna, President of Mexico, enacted a unified constitution for Mexico which created a centralized government with power concentrated in the President giving Texans a reason to rebel.^[40] In addition to Texas, states around Mexico including Chihuahua, Zacatecas and Yucatan rebelled against this imposition.^[41] By early 1835, Texans also formed the seeds of rebellion by forming Committees of Correspondence and Safety.^[42]

The vague unrest erupted into armed conflict on October 2, 1835 at the Battle of Gonzales.^[43] This launched the Texas Revolution, and over the next three months, the Texians successfully defeated all Mexican troops in the region.^[44] On March 2, 1836, the Convention of 1836 signed a Declaration of Independence.^[45][46]

In early 1836 Santa Anna personally led a 6000-man force towards Texas.^[47] The Mexican expedition initially was successful. With the Mexican army split in two, one part, led by general Jose de Urrea, defeated all the Texian resistance along the coast culminating in the Goliad Massacre.^[48] Santa Anna's forces after a thirteen-day siege, overwhelmed Texians in San Antonio during the Battle of the Alamo. News of the defeats sparked a population wide mass retreat called the Runaway Scrape.^[49] On April 21, 1836, after several weeks of retreat, the Texian Army commanded by Sam Houston attacked and defeated Santa Anna's forces at Battle of San Jacinto.^[50] Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the Treaties of Velasco, ending the war.^[51] Because the treaty was signed under duress, the Mexican government never ratified the treaty. Mexico would launch several minor invasions into Texas.

Later in 1836, the Texans adopted a constitution that formally legalized slavery. The Republic of Texas included the area of the present state of Texas, and additional unoccupied territory to the west and northwest.^[41]

Several sites served as temporary capitals of Texas until 1839, when the Republic built the brand new town of Austin as Texas' permanent capital. Internal politics of the Republic were based on the conflict between two factions. The nationalist faction, led by Mirabeau B. Lamar, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Native Americans, and the expansion of Texas to the Pacific Ocean. Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans. The conflict between the factions was typified by an incident known as the Texas Archive War.^[52]

Statehood

Main articles: Texas Annexation and Mexican American War

Most Texans supported annexation of their Republic into the United States. Events such as the Dawson Massacre and two recaptures of Béxar in Texas of 1842 added urgency to the desire for statehood.^[53] Strong abolitionist opposition to adding slave states blocked Texas's admission until pro-annexation James K. Polk won the election of 1844. On December 29, 1845, Congress admitted Texas to the U.S. as a constituent state of the Union.^[54]

When Texas gained statehood, the Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the United States. While the United States claimed that Texas' border stretched to the Rio Grande, citing the 1836 Treaties of Velasco, Mexico, never ratifing these treaties, claimed the Nueces River was its border.^[55] While the former Republic could not enforce its border claims, the United States had the military strength and the political will to do so. President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor south to the Rio Grande on January 13, 1846.^[55] On April 25, 1846, Mexican cavalry routed one an American cavalry patrol in the disputed area. Polk the declared the incident, called the Thornton Affair, an act of war.^[55] The first battles of the war were decisive American victories and were fought in Texas: the Siege of Fort Texas, Battle of Palo Alto and Battle of Resaca de la Palma.^[55] After these battles, no more battles of war were fought on Texas soil, as the United States invaded Mexican territory.^[55]

After a series of United States victories, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed February 2, 1848 ending the war. In return, for US $18,250,000, Mexico gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, and ceded the Mexican Cession of 1848, most of what is today called the American Southwest.^[55] Furthermore, Texas' borders were established at the Rio Grande.

The Compromise of 1850 set Texas's boundaries at their present form. Texas ceded land which later became half of present day New Mexico, a third of Colorado, and small portions of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming to the federal government, in return for the assumption of $10 million of the old republic's debt.^[56] Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state.^[57]

Civil War and Reconstruction

Main article: Texas in the American Civil War

The Confederate States of America accepted Texas as a charter member on March 1, 1861.^[58][2] During the American Civil War, Texas was a "supply state" for the Confederate forces due to its distance from the front lines, contributing men, especially cavalry. Texan regiments fought in every major battle throughout the war.^[59] In mid-1863 the Union capture of the Mississippi River cut Texas supply lines to the eastern parts of the Confederacy. Texas hosted the last battle of the Civil War, the Palmito Ranch on May 13, 1865.^[60]

Texas descended into anarchy two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by Union General Gordon Granger. Violence also marked the early months of Reconstruction.^[61] Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865 in Galveston by General Gordon Granger, over 2–1/2 years after the original announcement.^[62][63] President Johnson, on August 20, 1866, declared that civilian government restored in Texas.^[64] Despite not meeting reconstruction requirements, on March 30, 1870 Congress readmitted Texas into the Union.^[65] Social volatility continued as the state struggled with agricultural depression and labor issues.

Modern era

The first major oil well in Texas was Spindletop, south of Beaumont, on January 10, 1901. Other fields were later discovered nearby in East Texas, West Texas, and under the Gulf of Mexico. The resulting “Oil Boom” permanently transformed the economy of Texas.^[66] Oil production eventually averaged three million barrels per day at its peak in 1972;^[67] the resulting royalties provided a considerable source of income to the Permanent University Fund for Texas' public universities.

The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl dealt a double blow to the state's economy, which had significantly improved since the Civil War. Migrants abandoned the worst hit sections of Texas during the Dust Bowl years. Especially from this period on, blacks left Texas in the Great Migration to get work in the Northern United States or California and to escape the oppression of segregation.^[68]

On November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas, Lee Harvey Oswald assassinated president John F. Kennedy.^[69] The Texas Governor, John B. Connally, was also critically injured in the incident but survived.^[70] On Air Force One at Dallas's Love Field Airport, Kennedy's vice president, the Texan Lyndon Baines Johnson, swore in as the next president.^[71]

Despite the tragedy, in the 1950 through the 1960s, Texas modernized and expanded its system of higher education. Under the leadership of Governor Connally, the state created a comprehensive plan for higher education, a different distribution of resources, and a central state apparatus designed to manage state institutions more efficiently. These changes helped Texas universities receive federal research funds.^[72]

Geography

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Texas is located at the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico. It is in the south-central part of the United States of America.

Texas' size and unique history makes its regional affiliation debatable. Depending on the source, it can be fairly considered either or both a Southern or Southwestern state. The vast geographic, economic, and cultural diversity within the state itself prohibits easy categorization of the whole state into a recognized region of the United States. The East, Central, and North Texas, regions have a stronger association with the American South than with the Southwest. Others, such as far West Texas and South Texas share more similarities with the latter.

The Rio Grande, Red River and Sabine River form natural state borders, Oklahoma on the north, Louisiana and Arkansas on the east, & the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south. The state's Texas Panhandle has an eastern border with Oklahoma at 100° W, a northern border with Oklahoma at 36°30' N and a western border with New Mexico at 103° W. El Paso lies on the state's western tip at 32° N and the Rio Grande.^[56]

Geology

Main article: Geology of Texas

Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico. The continental crust forms a stable Mesoproterozoic craton which changes across a broad continental margin and transitional crust into true oceanic crust of the Gulf of Mexico. The oldest rocks in Texas date from the Mesoproterozoic and are about 1,600 million years old. These Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks underlie most of the state, and are exposed in three places: Llano uplift, Van Horn, and the Franklin Mountains, near El Paso. Sedimentary rocks overlay most of these ancient rocks. The oldest sediments were deposited on the flanks of a rifted continental margin, or passive margin that developed during Cambrian time. This margin existed until Laurasia and Gondwana collided in the Pennsylvanian era to form Pangea. This is the buried crest of the Appalachian Mountains—Ouachita Mountains zone of Pennsylvanian continental collision. This orogenic crest is today buried beneath the Dallas—Waco—Austin—San Antonio trend.

The late Paleozoic mountains collapsed as rifting in the Jurassic era began to open the Gulf of Mexico. Pangea began to break up in the Triassic but seafloor spreading to form the Gulf of Mexico occurred only in the mid and late Jurassic. The shoreline shifted again to the eastern margin of the state and the Gulf of Mexico passive margin began to form. Today 9 miles (14 km) to 12 miles (19 km) of sediments are buried beneath the Texas continental shelf and a large proportion of remaining US oil reserves are located here. At the start of its formation, the incipient Gulf of Mexico basin was restricted and seawater often evaporated completely to form thick evaporite deposits of Jurassic age. These salt deposits formed salt dome diapirs, and are found in East Texas, along the Gulf coast.^[73]

East Texas outcrops consist of Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments which contain important deposits of Eocenelignite. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian sediments in the north, Permian sediments in the west, Cretaceous sediments in the east, and along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas continental shelf contain oil. Oligocene volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas, in the Big Bend area. A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important aquifer.^[74] Located far from an active plate tectonic boundary, Texas has no volcanoes and few earthquakes.^[75]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Texas

The large size of Texas and its location at the intersection of multiple climate zones gives the state very variable weather. The Panhandle of the state has colder winters than North Texas, while the Gulf Coast has mild winters. Texas has wide variations in precipitation patterns. El Paso, on the western end of the state, averages as little as 8 inches (200 mm) of annual rainfall while Houston, on the southeast Texas averages as much as 54 inches (1,400 mm) per year.^[76] Dallas in the North Central region averages a more moderate 37 inches (940 mm) per year.

Generally, snow falls multiple times each winter in the Panhandle and mountainous areas of West Texas, once or twice a year in North Texas, once every few years in Central and East Texas, but snow rarely falls south of San Antonio or on the coast except in extreme circumstances, such as the 2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm which saw the first White Christmas ever for Houston and 6 inches of snow as far south as Kingsville, whose average high temperature in December is 65°F ^[77].

Maximum temperatures in the summer months average from the 80s °F (26 °C) in the mountains of West Texas and on Galveston Island to around 100 °F (38 °C) in the Rio Grande Valley, but most areas of Texas see consistent summer high temperatures in the 90 °F (32 °C) range.

Night time summer temperatures range from the upper 50s °F (14 °C) in the West Texas mountains^[78] to 80 °F (27 °C) in Galveston.^[79]

Thunderstorms strike Texas often, especially the eastern and northern portion of the state. Tornado Alley covers the northern section of Texas. The state experiences the most tornadoes in the Union, an average of 139 a year. These strike most frequently in North Texas and the Panhandle.^[80] Tornadoes in Texas generally occur in the months of April, May, and June.^[81]

Some of the most destructive hurricanes in U.S. history have impacted Texas. A hurricane in 1875 killed approximately 400 people in Indianola, followed by another hurricane in 1886 that destroyed the town, at the time the most important port city in the state. This allowed Galveston to take over as the chief port city, the Galveston hurricane of 1900 subsequently devastated that city killing approximately 8,000 people (possibly as many as 12,000), making it the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history. Other devastating Texas hurricanes include the 1915 Galveston Hurricane, Hurricane Audrey in 1957, which killed over 600 people, Hurricane Carla in 1961, Hurricane Beulah in 1967, Hurricane Alicia in 1983, Hurricane Rita in 2005, and Hurricane Ike in 2008.^[82]

Texas emits the most greenhouse gases in the US.^[83][84][85] The state's emits nearly 1.5 trillion pounds (680 billion kg) of carbon dioxide annually. As an independent nation Texas would rank as the world's seventh-largest producer of greenhouse gases.^[84][86] Causes of the state's vast greenhouse gas emissions include the state's large number of coal power plants and the state's refining and manufacturing industries.^[84]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Texas

As of 2006, the state has an estimated population of 23,507,783, an increase of 2.5% from the prior year and 12.7% since the year 2000. The state's rate of natural increase (births - deaths) since the last census was 1,389,275 people, immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 801,576 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 451,910 people.^[2] As of 2004, the state had 3.5 million foreign-born residents (15.6 percent of the state population), of which an estimated 1.2 million are illegal immigrants. Texas from 2000–2006 had the fastest growing illegal immigration rate in the nation.^[87] Because of a strong labor market, from 1995–2000, Texas also is a receiving state of black college graduates from the New Great Migration - the return of African Americans to the South.^[88]

Racial group and ethnic origins

As of the 2006 US Census estimates, the racial and ethnic distribution in Texas are as follows:

• 48.9% White non-Hispanic
  • German (10.9%)
  • English (7.2%)
  • Scots-Irish (7.2%)
• 35.7% total Hispanic or Latino^[6]
• 11.6% African American
• 3.3% Asian American
• 0.6% American Indian
• 13% other racial groups

German descendants inhabit much of central and southeast-central Texas. Recently, the Asian population in Texas has grown—primarily in Houston and Dallas. Over one-third of Texas residents are of Hispanic origin;^[6] many have recently arrived, while some Tejanos have ancestors with multigenerational ties to 18th century Texas. In addition to the descendents of the state's former slave population, many African Americans college graduates have come in the New Great Migration.^[88]

American Indian tribes who once lived inside the boundaries of present-day Texas include Apache, Atakapan, Bidai, Caddo, Comanche, Cherokee, Kiowa, Tonkawa, Wichita, Hueco and the Karankawa of Galveston. Currently, three federally recognized Native American tribes reside in Texas: the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe, the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe, and the Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo.^[89]

Religion

Texas resides in the socially conservative Evangelical Protestant Bible Belt, and has the highest percentage of people with a religious affiliation in the United States.^[90] Dallas-Fort Worth, home to three major evangelical seminaries, has several megachurches, including Fellowship Church, Potter's House and Prestonwood Baptist Church. Houston is home to the largest "church" in the nation, Lakewood Church. Lubbock, according to local lore, has the most churches per capita in the nation.^[90]

The religious affiliation of Texas are as follows^[91]:

• Roman Catholic - 28%
• Baptist - 21%
• No religion - 11%
• Christian - 7%
• Methodist - 8%
• Lutheran - 3%
• Pentecostal - 3%
• Presbyterian - 2%
• Episcopalian - 1%
• Judaism, Islam, other - 1%
• Non-denominational - 1%

The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 4,368,969; the Southern Baptist Convention with 3,519,459; and the United Methodist Church with 1,022,342.^[92] Also, approximately 400,000 Muslims live in Texas.^[93]

Cities and towns

See also: List of cities in Texas, List of Texas metropolitan areas, and Population of Texas cities in 2000

As of 2000, six incorporated places in Texas have populations greater than 500,000, two of which are global cities: Dallas and Houston.^[94] Texas has a total of 25 metropolitan areas, with four having populations over 1 million (Dallas-Fort Worth, Houston, San Antonio and Austin) and two over 5 million. Texas has the most cities, three, with populations exceeding 1 million: Dallas, Houston, San Antonio.^[95] These three rank among the 10 largest cities of the United States. Austin, Fort Worth, and El Paso rank among the top 25 largest U.S. cities. Three interstate highways – I-35 to the west (Dallas-Fort Worth to San Antonio, with Austin in between), I-45 to the east (Dallas to Houston), and I-10 to the south (San Antonio to Houston) forms the Texas Urban Triangle region. The region contains most of the state's largest cities and metropolitan areas, as well as nearly 75 percent of Texas's total population.^[96]

In contrast to the cities, Texas has rural, unincorporated settlements called colonias which often lack basic infrastructure and are marked by poverty.^[97] As of 2007, Texas had at least 2,294 colonias, located primarily along the state's 1,248-mile (2,008 km) border with Mexico.^[97] In total, Texas has the largest concentration of people, approximately 400,000, living in colonias.

Government and politics

The Texas Constitution, adopted in 1876, like many states, explicitly provides separation of powers. Much longer than its federal counterpart, the state's Bill of Rights has provisions unique to Texas.^[98]

State government

Main article: Government of Texas

See also: List of Texas state agencies

Texas has a plural executive branch system which limits the power of the Governor. Except for the Secretary of State, voters elect executive officers independently making candidates directly answerable to the public, not the Governor.^[99] This election system has led to some executive branches split between parties. When Republican President George W. Bush served as Texas' governor, the state had a Democratic Lieutenant Governor, Bob Bullock. The executive branch positions consists of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Land Commissioner, Attorney General, Agriculture Commissioner, the three-member Texas Railroad Commission, the State Board of Education, and the Secretary of State.^[99]

The bicameral Texas Legislature consists of the House of Representatives, with 150 members, and a Senate, with 31 members. The Speaker of the House leads the House, and the Lieutenant Governor, the Senate.^[100] The Legislature meets in regular session biennially, but the Governor can call for special sessions as often as desired.^[101] The state's fiscal year spans from the previous calendar year's September 1 to the current year's August 31. Thus, the FY 2008 dates from September 1, 2007 through August 31, 2008.

The judicial system of Texas is one of the most complex in the United States, with many layers and overlapping jurisdictions. Texas has two courts of last resort: the Texas Supreme Court, for civil cases, and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals. Except for some municipal benches, partisan elections select judges at all levels of the judiciary; the Governor fills vacancies by appointment.^[102] Although only capital murder is eligible for the death penalty, Texas leads the nation in executions, 400, from 1982 to 2007.^[103] Known for their role in Texas law enforcement history, the Texas Ranger Division of the Texas Department of Public Safety continue to provide special law enforcement services to the state.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Texas

Further information: Political party strength in Texas

Like in other "Solid South" states, whites resented the Republican Party after the American Civil War. After regaining power near the end of Reconstruction, the Democratic Party held a monolithic political presence in Texas until the late 20th century. When President Lyndon Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, he reportedly said "We have lost the South for a generation".^[104]

The Texas political atmosphere leans towards fiscal and social conservatism.^[105][106] Since 1980, most of Texas voters have supported Republican presidential candidates. In 2000 and 2004, Republican George W. Bush won Texas with 60.1% of the vote due in part to his a "favorite son" status as a the Governor of the state. John McCain won the state in 2008, but in a smaller margin compared to Bush at (55%-44%). Austin consistently leans Democratic in both local and statewide elections. Houston and Dallas remain approximately split. Counties along the Rio Grande generally vote Democratic, while most rural areas of Texas vote Republican.^[107][108]

The 2003 Texas redistricting of congressional districts led by the Republican Tom Delay, was called by the New York Times "an extreme case of partisan gerrymandering".^[109] A group of Democratic legislators, the "Texas Eleven", fled the state in a quorum-busting effort.^[110] Despite these efforts the legislature passed a map heavily in favor of Republicans. Protests of the redistricting went reached the national Supreme court in the case League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry, but the ruling went in the Republican's favor.^[111]

As of the general elections of 2008, a large majority the members of Texas's U.S. House delegation are Republican, along with both U.S. Senators. In the 111th United States Congress, Of the 32 congressional districts in Texas, 20 are held by Republicans and 12 by Democrats. Texas' Senators are Kay Bailey Hutchison and John Cornyn. Since 1994, Texans have not elected a Democrat to a statewide office. The state's Democratic presence comes primarily from minority groups and urban voters, particularly in Austin, San Antonio, Dallas and Houston.

Administrative divisions

See also: List of Texas counties and List of United States congressional districts#Texas

Texas has 32 congressional districts, the second-most after California. There are 254 counties—the most nationwide. Each county runs on Commissioners' Court system consisting of four elected commissioners and a county judge. County government runs similar to a "weak" mayor-council system; the county judge has no veto authority, but votes along with the other commissioners.

Texas does not allow consolidated city-county governments, nor does it have metropolitan governments. The state permits cities and counties to enter "interlocal agreements" to share services. Counties are not granted home rule status; their powers are strictly defined by state law. The state does not have townships— areas within a county are either incorporated or unincorporated. Incorporated areas are part of a municipality. The county provides limited services to unincorporated areas. Municipalities are classified either "general law" cities or "home rule".^[112] A municipality may elect home rule status once it exceeds 5,000 population with voter approval. Municipal elections are nonpartisan^[113] as are elections for school boards.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Texas

Texas's large population, abundance of natural resources, and diverse population and geography have led to a large and highly diverse economy. Since the discovery of oil, the state's economy reflected the state of the petroleum industry. In recent times, urban centers of the state have diversified, employing two-thirds of the population in 2005. Growth in the state's economy has caused problems associated with urban sprawl.^[114]

Texas has a "low taxes, low services" reputation.^[105] According to the Tax Foundation, Texans' state and local tax burdens rank among the lowest in the nation, 7th lowest nationally, with state and local taxes costing $3,580 per capita, or 8.7% of resident incomes.^[115] Texas, along with only 6 other states, does not have a state income tax.^[115][116] The state has a sales tax rate, 6.25%, above the national medium, with many localities adding to this percentage.^[115] As for Texas's business tax climate, the state ranks 8th in the nation.^[115] While Texas does not have state property taxes, local versions generally rate above the national average.^[115] Texas is a "tax donor state"; in 2005, for every dollar Texans pay to the federal government in federal income taxes, the state receives back approximately $0.94 in benefits back.^[115]

In 2004, the Site Selection magazine ranked Texas as the most business friendly state in the nation. A big reason for this ranking comes from the state's three billion dollar, Texas Enterprise Fund.^[117] In the fourth quarter of 2006, Texas had a gross state product of $1.09 trillion, the second highest in the U.S.^[118][119] Gross state product per capita as of 2005 was $42,975. The state holds the most Fortune 500 company headquarters in the United States.^[120][121]

Agriculture and mining

Agriculturally, Texas has the most farms both in number and acreage in the United States.^[122] Texas leads the nation livestock production.^[122] Cattle is the state's most valuable agricultural product, but the state also leads nationally in production of sheep and goat products. Texas leads as king of cotton leading that nation in production of its leading crop and second-most-valuable farm product.^[122] The state also grows significant amounts of cereal crops and produce.^[122] Texas also has a large commercial fishing industry. With mineral resources, Texas leads in creating cement, crushed stone, lime, salt, sand and gravel.^[122]

Energy

See also: Deregulation of the Texas electricity market

Energy has been a dominant force politically and economically since oil was first discovered in the state. According to the Energy Information Administration, Texans consume the most energy in the nation both in per capita and as a whole.^[123] Unlike the rest of the nation, most of Texas is on its own alternating current power grid, the Texas Interconnection. Despite the California electricity crisis Texas has a deregulated electric service.

The Railroad Commission of Texas, contrary to its name, regulates the state's oil and gas industry, gas utilities, pipeline safety, safety in the liquefied petroleum gas industry, and surface coal and uranium mining. Until the 1970s, the commission had enormous control the price of petroleum because of its ability to regulate Texas's oil reserves. The founders of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) used the Texas agency as one of their models for petroleum price control.^[124]

Texas has known petroleum deposits of about 5 billion barrels (790,000,000 m³), which makes up approximately one-fourth of the known U.S. reserves.^[123] The state's refineries can process 4.6 million barrels (730,000 m³) of oil a day.^[123] The Baytown Refinery in the Houston area is the largest refinery America.^[123] Texas also leads in natural gas production producing one-fourth of the nation's supply.^[123] Several petroleum companies are based in Texas such as: Conoco-Phillips, Exxon-Mobil, Halliburton, Valero, and Marathon Oil.

The state is a leader in renewable energy sources producing the most wind power nationwide.^[123][125] The Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center, in Taylor and Nolan County, Texas, is the world's largest wind farm as of Nov. 2008 with a 735.5 megawatt (MW) capacity.^[126] The state's large agriculture and forestry industries gives Texas enormous biomass potential, and the state has one of the highest solar power potential's in the nation.^[123]

Technology

With large universities systems coupled with initiatives like TEF and the Texas Emerging Technology Fund, a wide array of different high tech industries have developed in Texas. The Austin area is nicknamed the "Silicon Hills" and the north Dallas area the "Silicon Prairie". Texas has the headquarters of many high technology companies, such as Dell, Inc., Texas Instruments, Perot Systems, AT&T, and Electronic Data Systems (EDS).

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC), operated by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), located in Southeast Houston, sits as the crown jewel of Texas's aeronautics industry. Fort Worth hosts both Lockheed Martin's Aeronautics division and Bell Helicopter Textron.^[127][128] Lockheed builds the F-16 Fighting Falcon, the largest Western fighter program, and its successor, the F-35 Lightning II in Fort Worth.^[129]

Commerce

Texas's affluence stimulates a strong commercial sector consisting of retail, wholesale, banking and insurance, and construction industries. Examples of Fortune 500 companies not based on Texas traditional industries are: AT&T, Men's Warehouse, Landry's Restaurants,